Buddhist monasticism
| Image:Dharma wheel 1.png Buddhism |
|---|
| Culture |
| History |
| List of topics |
| People |
| By region |
| By country |
| Schools |
| Temples |
| Concepts |
| Texts |
| Timeline |
Contents |
History and Development
The order of Buddhist monks and nuns was founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime of over 2500 years ago. The Buddhist monastic lifestyle grew out of the lifestyle of earlier sects of wandering ascetics, some of whom the Buddha had studied under, and was initially fairly eremetic in nature. Individuals or small groups of monks- a teacher and his students, or several monks who were friends- would travel together, living on the outskirts of local communities and practicing meditation in the forests. Monks and nuns were expected to live with a minimum of possessions, which were to be voluntarily provided by the lay community. Lay followers also provided the daily food that monks required, and provided shelter for monks when they were needed.
After the death of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily cenobitic movement. The practice of living communally during the rainy vassa season, prescribed by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on life in a community of practitioners. Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by monks and nuns- the Patimokkha- relate to such an existing, prescribing in great detail proper methods for living and relating in a community of monks or nuns. The number of rules observed varies with the order; Theravada monks follow around 227 rules. There are a larger number of rules specified for bhikkhunis.
Monastic Life
The Buddhist monastic order is theoretically devided into two assemblies, the male bhikkhu assembley, and the female bhikkhuni assembly. Initially consisting only of males, the Buddhist monastic order grew to include females after the Buddha's step-mother, Mahaprajapati, asked for and received permission to live as an ordained practitioner. In modern practice, the bhikkhuni linneage died out in the Theravada communities, failed to be established in the Vajrayana communities of Tibet and Nepal, and currently exists only in the East Asian Mahayana orders.
Monks and nuns are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. First and foremost, they are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as Buddhism. They are also expected to provide a living example for the laity,and to serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers- providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the monks. In return for the support of the laity, monks and nuns are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character. The relative degree of emphasis on meditation or study has often been debated in the Buddhist community.
A monk, known as a Bhikkhu in Pali or Bhikshu in Sanskrit, first ordains as a Samanera (novice) for a year or more. Novices often ordain at a very young age, but generally no younger than 8. Samaneras live according to the Ten Precepts, but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules. Higher ordination, conferring the status of a full Bhikkhu, is usually given only to men who are aged 20 or older. Nuns follow a similar progression, but are required to live as Samaneras for a longer periods of time- typically five years.
The disciplinary regulations for monks and nuns are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism. Celibacy is of primary importance in monastic discipline, being seen as being the preeminent factor in seperating the life of a monk from that of a 'householder'. Depending on the tradition and the strictness of observation, monastics may eat only one meal a day, provided either by direct donations of food from lay supporters, or from a monastery kitchen that is stocked (and possibly staffed) by donations from lay supporters.
Unlike Christian monastics, Buddhist monks are not required to live a life of obedience to a superior. While respect it is expected that monks will offer respect to senior members of the monastic assembly (seniority is reckoned based on the number of rains retreats (vassa) that one has been ordained), the Buddha did not appoint a succesor, nor did he specify rules mandating obedience in the monastic code. Individual groups of monks are intended to make decisions collectively through regular gatherings of the community, at which decisions regarding violations of monastic rules and the dispositions of communal property are to be made. Individual relationships of teacher/student, senior/junior, and preceptor/trainee may be observed among groups of monks, but there are not formal positions, nor is there any authority to give orders or commands invested in senior monks. An abott, typically a senior monk still young enough to be active, is usually responsible for the day-to-day administration of the monastery, and may appoint others to assist him in his work. In some traditions, the abbot is chosen by a vote of the monks in a monastery. In other areas (traditionally in Thailand, for example) the abbot is chosen by the lay community.
Local Variations
Monastic practices vary significantly according to location. In part, this can be attributed to differences in the scriptural and doctrinal traditions that were received in different parts of the Buddhist world. Additionally, local concessions to social, geographical, and climactic conditions have been adopted by most monastic orders in order to smooth the integration of monks into local communities, and to ensure that monks live in a safe and reasonable manner. In cold climates, for instance, monks are permitted to own and wear additional clothing not specified in the scriptures. In areas where begging rounds are impossible (due to traffic, geography, or disfavor by the lay community), monks more commonly employ a kitchen staff of monks or lay followers who are responsible for providing meals for the community.
Tibet
In Tibet, before the Communist invasion in the late 1940s and early '50s, more than half of the country's male population was ordained. Due to the oppression, and destruction of monasteries and libraries by the Chinese, this is no longer the case - the Chinese have historically justified this by the accusation that the Tibetan monks exploited the poor peasantry of Tibet for their sustenance. Hoping to find religious freedom, many Tibetan monks annually risk crossing the Himalayas, often trying to reach India. While generally adhering to a Mahayana tradition that advocates the virtues of vegetarianism, Tibetan monks generally eat meat as a concession to climactic conditions that make a plant based diet largely unfeasable.
East Asia
In East Asia, monastics live in greater isolation from the lay population than is observed in most Theravada countries. Because of local conditions of geography and climate, as well as local attitudes towards begging, monks generally do not make begging rounds in China, Korea, and many parts of Japan. Instead, monasteries receive donations of bulk food (such as rice) and funds for the purchase of food that is then stored and prepared at the monastery. The management of the kitchen and monastery properties may be the purview of a specially designated layman, or a monk who has been given a special role by the abbot of the monastery.
Monastics in Japan are particularly exceptional in the Buddhist tradition because they generally marry after receiving their higher ordination. This unusual practice stems from a government initiative passed during the Meiji Restoration that required monks to seek wives. While one of the four Tibetan monastic orders permits marriage, as well as some Korean orders, Japan is the only Buddhist country where the majority of religious specialists are married.
Southeast Asia
In Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar where the Theravada school is dominant, there is a long tradition of temporary ordination. During a school break, many young men usually ordain for a week or two to earn merit for loved ones and to gain knowledge of Buddhist teachings. In most countries, this temporary ordination occurs during the vassa retreat, which is regarded as a period of intensified spiritual effort by local Buddhists. Men in Thailand typically ordain only before being married; men in Laos and Myanmar could traditionally return to the monastery from time to time after being married, provided that they secured their wive's permission. Theravada monks are also most likely to engage in traditional begging practices, although the urbanization of parts of Southeast Asian (particularly Thailand) has presented a challange to this practice.
In Thailand, where the Buddhist institution has traditionally been closely associated with the government and the institution of kingship, a more hierarchical structure has evolved to deal with the administration and regulation of monasteries. This system initially stemmed from a system of royal patronage, in which monks who were appointed the abbots of 'royal monasteries' (those endowed and supported by members of the royal family) were accorded greater respect than those who headed more conventional monasteries. This system remained fairly unstructured until the modernisation efforts of the 19th Century, during which a more formal system of governance was created by the central government. Modern Thai monks are ranked according to their ability to pass examinations in Buddhist doctrine and the Pali language, and are appointed to succesively higher positions in the ecclesiastic hierarchy on the basis of these exams, as well as their support among infulential members of the royal family and government. Local affairs continue to be handled primarily by the local monastic and lay community, but nationwide efforts (such as curriculum decisions for monastic schools, and the authoratative form of scriptures and rituals) are typically made by the central hierarchy.